the pope succeeded in causing those who had taken refuge in neighbouring states to be delivered up to him; and thus the last spark of roman liberty was extinguished in blood. _general mildness of italian warfare_. 1492. the horses and armour of the italian men at arms were reckoned superior to those of the transalpine nations against which they had measured themselves in france, during the war of the public weal. the italian captains had made war a science, every branch of which they thoroughly knew. it was never suspected for a moment that the soldier should be wanting in courage: but the general mildness of manners, and the progress of civilization, had accustomed the italians to make war with sentiments of honour and humanity towards the vanquished. ever ready to give quarter, they did not strike a fallen enemy. often, after having taken from him his horse and armour, they set him free; at least, they never demanded a ransom so enormous as to ruin him. horsemen who went to battle clad in steel, were rarely killed or wounded, so long as they kept their saddles. once unhorsed, they surrendered. the battle, therefore, never became murderous. the courage of the italian soldiers, which had accommodated itself to this milder warfare, suddenly gave way before the new dangers and ferocity of barbarian enemies. they became terror-struck when they perceived that the french caused dismounted horsemen to be put to death by their valets, or made prisoners only to extort from them, under the name of ransom, all they possessed. the italian cavalry, equal in courage, and superior in military science, to the french, was for some time unable to make head against an enemy whose ferocity disturbed their imaginations. _battle of marignano_. 1515.francis i. succeeded louis xii. on the 1st of january; on the 27th of june he renewed his predecessors treaty of alliance with venice; and on the 15th of august, entered the plains of lombardy, by the marquisate of saluzzo, with a powerful army. he met but little resistance in the provinces south of the po, but the swiss meanwhile arrived in great force to defend maximilian sforza, whom, since they had reseated him on the throne, they regarded as their vassal. francis in vain endeavoured to negotiate with them; they would not listen to the voice of their commanders; democracy had passed from their _landsgemeinde_ into their armies, popular orators roused their passions; and on the 13th of september they impetuously left milan to attack francis i. at marignano. deep ditches lined with soldiers bordered the causeway by which they advanced; their commanders wished by some manoeuvre to get clear of them, or make the enemy change his position; but the swiss, despising all the arts of war, expected to command success by mere intrepidity and bodily strength. they marched to the battery in full front; they repulsed the charge of the knights with their halberds, and threw themselves with fury into the ditches which barred their road. some rushed on to the very mouths of the cannon, which guarded the king, and there fell. night closed on the combatants; and the two armies mingled together fought on for four hours longer by moonlight. complete darkness at length forced them to rest on their arms; but the kings trumpet continually sounded, to indicate to the bivouac where he was to be found; while the two famous horns of uri and unterwalden called the swiss together. the battle was renewed on the 14th at daybreak: the unrelenting obstinacy was the same; but the french had taken advantage of the night to collect and fortify themselves. marshal trivulzio, who had been present at eighteen pitched battles, declared that every other seemed to him childrens play in comparison with this battle of giants, as he called it: 20,000 dead already covered the ground; of these two-thirds were swiss. when the swiss despaired of victory they retreated slowly,but menacing and terrible. the french did not dare to pursue them. the concluding paragraph of the volume is beautifully enthusiastic: it may almost be regarded as prophetic in connexion with events that are at this moment shaking italy to her very base: italy is crushed; but her heart still beats with the love of liberty, virtue, and glory: she is chained and covered with blood; but she still knows her strength and her future destiny: she is insulted by those for whom she has opened the way to every improvement; but she feels that she is formed to take the lead again: and europe will know no repose till the nation which, in the dark ages, lighted the torch of civilization with that of liberty, shall be enabled herself to enjoy the light which she created. childs arithmetical tables. the seventh edition, besides being well adapted for schools, will be found useful in the business of life. it includes the monies, weights, and measures, mentioned in scripture, the length of miles in different countries, astronomical signs, and other matters computed with great care. the georgian era. this work is intended to comprise memoirs of the most eminent characters who have flourished in great britain during the reigns of the four georges: the present volume being only a fourth of its extent, and containing the royal family, the pretenders and their adherents, churchmen, dissenters, and statesmen. the importance of the chosen period is prefatorily urged by the editor: in comparison with the elizabethan or the modern augustan, (as the reign of anne has been designated) that which may be appropriately termed the georgian era, possesses a paramount claim to notice; for not only has it been equally fertile in conspicuous characters, and more prolific of great events, but its influence is actually felt by the existing community of great britain. the several memoirs, so far as a cursory glance enables us to judge, are edited with great care. their uniformity of plan is very superior to hastily compiled biographies. each memoir contains the life and labours of its subject, in the smallest space consistent with perspicuity; the dryness of names, dates, and plain facts being admirably relieved by characteristic anecdotes of the party, and a brief but judicious summary of character by the editor. in the latter consists the original value of the work. the reader need not, however, take this summary for granted: he is in possession of the main facts from which the editor has drawn his estimate, and he may, in like manner, weigh and consider, and draw his own inference. the anecdotes, to borrow a phrase from addison, are the sweetmeats of the book, but the caution with which they are admitted, adds to their worth. the running reader may say that much of this portion is not entirely new to him: granted; but it would be unwise to reject an anecdote for its popularity; as addison thought of chevy chase, its commonness is its worth. but, it should be added, that such anecdotes are not told in the circumlocutory style of gossip, nor nipt in the bud by undeveloped brevity. we have seldens pennyworth of spirit without the glass of water: the quintessence of condensation, which, we are told, is the result of time and experience, which rejects what is no longer essential. here circumspection was necessary, and it has been well exercised. the anecdotes are not merely amusing but useful, since only when placed in juxtaposition with a mans whole life, can such records be of service in appreciating his character. let us turn to the volume for a few examples, and take george the fourth and sheridan, for their contemporary interest; though the earlier characters are equally attractive